negative impacts of environmental conservation

2015;386:19732028. Broadly, the evidence base is insufficient to make generalizations about policy effectiveness or trade-offs between different options for improving human well-being through nature-based conservation. Wind turbines, both land-based and offshore, kill millions . Geographical and taxonomic biases in research on biodiversity in human-modified landscapes. Reduced Water Quantity As the population grows and water demands increase, water flow in rivers and streams, or instream flow, may decrease. 10) and a number of new, robust articles have been undertaken since some of these reviews were published there is an opportunity to carry out additional syntheses on these linkages and expand their scope to marine and freshwater biomes. We posit several reasons for occurrence of these gaps. 2011;21:13. Miteva DA, Pattanayak SK, Ferraro PJ. Lu Y, Nakicenovic N, Visbeck M, Stevance AS. What are the impacts of nature conservation interventions on human well-being: a systematic map protocol. They found that biodiversity offset projects, both conservation restrictions and development activities, effect well-being in a mixture of positive and negative ways. In addition, we contacted 50 key informants by email, representing a range of organizations, research institutes and geographic regions, with a request for relevant documents and/or journals, databases or websites where additional articles might be found. During coding of included articles, occurrence of conceptual models was recorded when a visual graphic or diagram was includedother articles also included narrative description of models, but these individual qualitative descriptions were too varied and subjective to consistently characterize across the whole evidence base. How Religion Influences Our Relationship With the Environment This question has the following components: Population Human populations including individuals, households or communities within non-Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries, Intervention In-situ nature conservation interventions based upon the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and Conservation Measures Partnership (CMP) typology of conservation actions [41], Comparator Absence of intervention either between sites or groups, and/or over time, Outcome Positive or negative effects on multi-dimensional well-being status of human population, Study type Article empirically measuring effects of a program, activity or policy using observational or experimental data from primary or secondary sources. By synthesizing existing evidence into a single, searchable resource, the map becomes, in effect, a treasure map, simultaneously revealing rich seams of evidence ripe for synthesis as well as under-explored topics for targeted research. We were primarily limited to articles, documents and reports that were available electronically and distributed online. Articles were screened for relevance against predefined inclusion criteria at title, abstract and full text levels according to a published protocol. Figure8a provides an overview of the distribution and frequency of linkages across the framework of interventions and outcomes, and thus reflects the overall systematic map and major output for this study. Changes like these have triggered climate change, soil erosion, poor air quality, and undrinkable water. Transforming our world: the 2030 agenda for sustainable development. sites for clean energy projects will reduce the impact of these technologies on undeveloped lands and enable more land conservation, along with job creation and . The evidence base is growing on conservation-human well-being linkages, but biases in the extent and robustness of articles on key linkages persist. 2011;48:3106. Agriculture and environmental services discussion paper. Categories of interventions and outcomes are described in Tables1 and 2. This did not include assessment of the directionality or distribution of impacts observed by individual articles nor synthesis of average effect sizes for multiple articles as might be conducted as part of a more detailed systematic review or meta-analysis. These aspects may be difficult to quantify but scales could be developed. Better understanding of health impacts for example would require knowledge on epidemiology, nutrition and health economics. . 2010;4:25474. Yang W, Dietz T, Liu W, Luo J, Liu J. We were specifically interested in the extent and occurrence of impact evaluationssystematic designs measuring the intended and unintended causal effects of conservation interventions on social and ecological conditions [28]. What are promising areas for further synthesis? Negative Effects of Construction on the Environment 1. The production and employment inducements . Thus, increased monitoring of socioeconomic outcomes has thus been dually influenced by a need to demonstrate contributions to broader development goals, e.g., United States Agency for International Developments Biodiversity Policy 2014, [54], World Bank Biodiversity road map [63], and by a genuine desire to do no harm and to ensure the longevity of natural ecosystems upon which vulnerable populations depend [64]. Soil Stabilization 3. Bottrill MC, Cheng S, Garside R, Wongbusarakum S, Roe D, Holland M, Edmond J, Turner WR. New Dir Eval. The negative environmental impacts of tourism are substantial. CAS McKinnon MC, Cheng SH, Garside R, Masuda YJ, Miller DC. The five countries with the greatest number of all included articles are India, Nepal, China, Brazil and Tanzania (Fig. Moving rio forward and avoiding 10 more years with little evidence for effective conservation policy. A full description of the construction of the search string is documented [6]. Sustainability. Negative Environmental Impacts Of Tourism - The World Counts [7], this review sought to understand potential winwin outcomes from land management policies. Renewable energy often requires more land than fossil fuel production, with infrastructure fragmenting or even eliminating high-quality wildlife habitat, according to Moorman. 2013;2:19. Proc Natl Acad Sci. Andam KS, Ferraro PJ, Sims KR, Healy A, Holland MB. Yet, effective policy-making and informed decisions about how simultaneously to enhance human well-being and conserve nature depend on access to a robust and comprehensive evidence database. 2006;4:4828. Margoluis R, Stem C, Salafsky N, Brown M. Design alternatives for evaluating the impact of conservation projects. "However, overall . In our coding strategy, we did not distinguish between articles and studies, and treated all articles as single cases. In addition to improving evidence on a broader range of human well-being outcomes, other promising areas for research involve expanding the scope of evaluations to target less studied interventions such as market forces and livelihood alternatives. Ecosyst Health Sustain. The linkage between conservation and human health is an especially promising area for further research which might be informed by several ongoing initiatives such as the Health and Ecosystems: Analysis of Linkages (HEAL) collaboration (http://www.wcs-heal.org). The families find themselves in a precarious situation with no proper livelihood as well as community facilities. Reliance on evidence solely from traditional interventions limits the range of options for those planning and investing in conservation, and also presents a potential risk by not reporting unintended or even negative outcomes from new, but increasingly popular, interventions. Wongbusarakum S, Madeira EM, Hartanto H. Strengthening the social impacts of sustainable landscapes programs: a practitioners guidebook to strengthen and monitor human well-being outcomes. 8a, linkages associated with economic and material well-being outcomes and area protection and land and water management also are well-studied. 2014;111:43327. Data on the effects of conservation on human well-being is currently scattered across multiple sources, many of which are inaccessible to policy makers and other decision makers [37]. The most studied regions, with over 200 articles, are Eastern Africa, Southern Asia, and Southeast Asia whereas North Africa and the Middle East had some of the fewest articles for their geographic extent. 2012;28:6992. Campese J, Sunderland T, Greiber T, Oviedo G. Rights-based approaches: exploring issues and opportunities for conservation. Tourism often puts pressure on natural resources through over-consumption, often in places where resources are already scarce. [7] examined the impacts of community forest management (CFM)resource management in developing countries on global environmental benefits associated with securing carbon in existing forests and aspects of local livelihoods, including income, employment, income equality, social equity, food security and health. Higher occurrence and more robust evidence on the contribution to sustainable development is an obvious priority given the recent launch of the Sustainable Development Goals. Efforts to date have been concentrated in countries with political support, consistent longitudinal datasets, and focus on interventions involving rapid applications, e.g., protected areas or payment for environmental services [33, 55]. In response, a growing number of evidence syntheses have emerged on social impacts of conservation. More often than not, the impact appears in negative ways. There is a need, then, for synthesis of evidence on governance as an outcome. About 12% of articles compared effects of the intervention over time either using a baseline before the start of the intervention or other interrupted time series data. 2012;463:25972. 2015;12:13747. 2013;2:2. Samii C, Paler L, Chavis L, Kulkarni P, Lisiecki M. Effects of decentralised forest management (DFM) on deforestation and poverty in low and middle income countries: a systematic review. Biodiversity conservation during a global crisis: Consequences - PNAS Due to the volume of articles identified and resource constraints, we did not conduct forward and backward screening of bibliographies of included articles. Pullin et al. What's the environmental impact each time we hit 'buy now,' and - NPR Ecosystem services and agriculture: trade-offs and synergies. The high occurrence of evidence on these linkages confirms the continued predominance of economic constructs of poverty and development (see e.g., World Bank Group [62]). Due to the size of the evidence base, data were not collated on qualitative approaches to impact evaluations such as stratified random sampling of interview subjects. CEE Review 11-006. List of websites searched for relevant articles. Robust study designs were limited with less than 9% of articles using quantitative approaches to evaluate causal effects of interventions. Second, systematic maps enable other researchers to rapidly locate and assess the state of the evidence base. Collaboration for Environmental Evidence. Each included article was examined using a standard coding tool and supplementary codebook to extract and categorize data from each article. Linkages with moderate or low occurrences of evidence, but which are priority topics for policy or program management by national governments, NGOs or conservation donors, might be promising areas for investment in research and additional impact evaluations. Climate Change Positive Effects of Construction on the Environment 1. Results of piloting were compared. Tallis H, Kareiva P, Marvier M, Chang M. An ecosystem services framework to support both practical conservation and economic development. [7]). J Appl Ecol. A next step to build on this map is thus provide guidance on how the current evidence base matches to existing evidence needs, and thus which linkages are highest priorities for establishing stronger evidence. Collaboration for Environmental Evidence. Further empirical evaluation is needed to document the magnitude and direction of particular conservation-well-being linkages, in particular for relationships commonly assumed in conceptual models, institutional strategies or global policy goals. Our map gives an indication of robustness of the evidence, based on study design, but does not give a detailed quality appraisal of articles and how they deal with susceptibility to biases and heterogeneity of effects. Against mono-consequentialism: multiple outcomes and their drivers in social-ecological systems. SURE Checklist for making judgements about how much confidence to place in a systematic review. (PDF) What are the impacts of nature conservation interventions on Prominent linkages where we might have expected higher levels evidence to exist include articles measuring outcomes related to culture, security and safety, and human health. Books, monographs, and geographically discrete journals or those that targeting specialist groups, e.g., the Indian Forester, were less accessible from the library collections to which the research team subscribed. 2006;35:25177. All criteria are required to be met for inclusion in the final dataset. Relatively few articles were documented for freshwater biomes overall (n=44) including freshwater floodplains and rivers, and lakes. 2012;26:6029. Trimble MJ, van Aarde RJ. Among the broader literature in environmental articles [1], recent reviews have observed few articles addressing joint effects between social and ecological outcomes [7, 43, 44]. With 11 quantitative articles included, the evidence base was limited in quantity and quality. Findings suggest that PES does reduce deforestation, but impacts are modest and inefficient. Articles appearing to meet inclusion criteria from screening the title and abstract were obtained as full text, and further screened against the inclusion criteria by two reviewers independently to produce the final set of included articles. The checklist is a standardised critical appraisal tool, giving reviews an overall rating of high, medium or low in terms of the confidence with which their findings can be assured based upon methodological design. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. New York: Springer; 2009. In contrast, countries with the highest number of impact evaluations (n>5) include China, Costa Rica, Brazil, Thailand and Tanzania (Fig. Second, measurement of these outcome types involve lengthy timeframes, beyond the average program timeline, to observe demonstrable changes. We recommend using this systematic map to support three follow-up actions: evidence synthesis, knowledge generation and theory development. The world is also becoming more polarized in regard to how different nations affect the environment, with high and growing emissions shares . Among these articles, a range of different models were used, including from established conceptual frameworks, to characterize linkages between natural conservation management and/or conservation and aspects of poverty or human well-being (Table4). These hypotheses have shaped conservation and development practices on the ground giving rise to integrated planning strategies (e.g., focus by USAID on Sustainable Landscapes models), an expansion of incentive-based conservation measures, such as Payments for Environmental Services (PES) [35], and socially-oriented approaches to conservation [10]. Oxford Rev Econ Policy. Limited or non-existent evidence, or gaps, on a specific linkage might be due to either a systemic bias in research efforts or rather to a lack of theory supporting a causal relationship between a specific intervention and outcome. The protocol was published in August 2014 [6]. Over the years, conservation has been portrayed as both a winwin solution for poverty alleviation and sustainable development, and as a constraint on economic growth [52]. Others such as the types of outcomes measured, interventions evaluated and study designs used are more specific to the research question at hand. Yang W, McKinnon MC, Turner WR. Our results suggest several areas in which evidence is sufficient for more detailed analysis and synthesis. World Bank Group. Collectively, the reviews found conservation has both positive and negative effects on human well-being; yet benefits of specific interventions were inconclusive (e.g., community forest management, Bowler et al. MCM, SHC, DP, JE, MBH, IO, JR and SS implemented the search strategy, screening and coding of included articles. Impact of tourism development upon environmental - Springer b Number of articles by intervention sub-category and grouped by broad categories. It can also lead to a variety of other impacts on wildlife, including behavioral changes and direct mortality. USAID biodiversity policy. 2015;520:4323. Table S1. Environ Evid. ), The study does not empirically observe or measure human well-being outcome(s), The study only focuses on biophysical outcomes of conservation or solely examines how status or trends in human well-being affect conservation outcomes, Commentary, editorials and narrative reviews. Most articles measured more than one outcome with the average number of outcomes measured by article=2.65 (1.35SD). Open in viewer Immediate Impacts Conservation development projects requiring a mandatory human presence, such as surveillance of protected areas, treatments of diseases of wild plants and animals, and eradication of invasive alien species, may take a backseat. Economic well-being was the most frequently documented outcome with over 700 articles including this as a measure. Environ Evid. Conserv Biol. MCM and SHC wrote the manuscript and all authors provided critical review on a draft version. UN. Alternatively, regulations restricting access might affect vulnerable groups dependent on natural resources for their livelihoods [56] or bring communities into conflict with wildlife populations managed under conservation arrangements [50]. In three quantitative articles identified on human well-being effects, DFM did boost forest or household income (for example, up to 35% per capita expenditure in Ethiopia). The extent and robustness of the evidence base was also affected by factors outside the design and scope of our study related to issues of accessibility, availability and bias in current research efforts. [38] examined the impacts of terrestrial protected areas globally and human well-being. Coded data for each individual article included in this study is listed in Additional file 5: Appendix 5. Economic and material well-being have also been subject to a greater proportion of more rigorous impact evaluations and systematic reviews than other human well-being outcomes. Working paper 3. Such research is especially timely in the context of the Sustainable Development Goals and as the international community seeks the most effective means to reach the Aichi targets under the Convention on Biological Diversity. All tourism activities will have both positive and negative impacts on the natural, cultural and socio-economic environment. Nature. [Commentary] A decade after relocation, the lives of Van Gujjars still Furthermore, a subset of academic thesis databases was searched (Additional file 1: Appendix 1 Table S2) using a revised list of search terms. Excluded articles at the full text assessment stage are listed in Additional file 4: Appendix 4 Table S4. In a related systematic review, Samii et al. The most commonly referenced conceptual model was the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework established by the UK Department for International Development [13]. Second, the conservation of mass principle and the . Evidence is needed at other spatial and . Leisher C, Samberg LH, van Beukering P, Sanjayan M. Focal areas for measuring the human well-being impacts of a conservation initiative. While some articles discuss results from multiple studies, these were generally treated as reviews and excluded from our dataset. Lancet. Instead, appraisal was limited to assessing the confidence in the methods and findings of systematic reviews identified. People dedicated to Leave No Trace principles attempt to do the least damage, but to be factual, any incursion into wildlife for the sole sake of enjoyment does damage. USAID. The study focuses on the well-being of discrete individuals, households or communities, or nation states living in non-OECD countries, The study involves establishment, adoption, implementation or refinement of a program or policy that regulates, protects or manages biodiversity and natural ecosystems through in situ activities, The study measures or observes effects on one or more domains of human well-being categorized as follows: Economic Living Standards, Material Living Standards, Governance and Empowerment, Education and Capacity Building, Health, Subjective well-being, Security and Safety, Culture and Spirituality, Social Relations, Freedom of Choice and Action, The study involves empirical measurement of direct or indirect effects of a policy or program, Systematic reviews and meta-analyses were marked and set aside separately for bibliographic searching, The study comments on effects of undefined groups, The study documents or measures daily use or interaction by people with natural ecosystems and/or ecosystem goods or services rather than associated with a specific and discrete intervention, The study is focused on environmental regulatory measures and mitigation (e.g., air quality control, waste management, energy production) and ex situ conservation efforts (e.g., zoos, captive breeding, seed banks etc. 2012;3:119. In two articles examining poverty outcomes, income increased by 4% in Mozambique and 14% in China among participants. Washington: Island Press; 2005. a Number of articles by region. Version 2.1, The SURE collaboration. Where do gaps exist in the evidence base that represent research priorities? Included articles were coded using a questionnaire. Finally, high occurrence of evidence for a specific linkage or type of article does not equate to positive impact of an intervention on a particular outcome nor is evidence of higher levels of robustness. It therefore offers several general insights on the value and existing barriers of systematic mapping as a tool for supporting evidence-informed decision making. There were no randomized control trials or joint measurement of linked deforestation and welfare effects. In the first instance, the map provides a potted reading list for particular interventions or outcome types, potentially saving considerable time and resources for anyone interested in this topic. Key informants were contacted with requests for articles and possible sources of evidence. Ferraro PJ, Hanauer MM. Beyond limitations in search strategy as discussed above, the current state of the evidence base is determined by gaps and biases in the distribution and extent of existing articles. Wildlife also benefited from reduced air and noise pollution as industry . Other types of outcomes based upon measuring well-being perceived by individuals, such as Culture and Spirituality, Freedom of Choice and Action and Subjective well-being, which may be more challenging to measure, were rarely documented. Additional file 1: Appendix 1. Madeleine C. McKinnon or Samantha H. Cheng. Occurrences of evidence are indicated by numeric values. Following implementation of the search strategy, all titles and abstracts were uploaded into Excel and reviewed against the inclusion and exclusion criteria above. Other relatively well-studied terrestrial biomes include tropical grasslands and savannas and montane grasslands. While benefits of conserving wild populations for food provision and the flow of ecological processes upon which agriculture depends are promoted as part of ecosystem-based approaches [5, 36], the map reveals health outcomes from conservation interventions, such as trends in nutrition and disease risk, are surprisingly understudied. Well-studied intervention categories, documented in over 300 articles, include Area protection, Land and Water management, Resource management, and interventions associated with Economic, livelihoods or other incentives. Environmental protection itself contributes to economic growth. The occurrences of evidence, or the number of times a linkage between an intervention evaluated and outcomes measured is documented in our systematic map is also indicated.
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